The words of Jeremiah, the son of Hilkiah, one of the priests who were in Anathoth in the land of Benjamin… (Jer. 1:1 ESV)
Jeremiah’s ministry began when he was “only a youth” (1:6) and continued for the next forty years throughout the reigns of Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah (1:1-2). It was a turbulent time in Judah’s history, with the rising threat from the Babylonians. Jeremiah prophesied and witnessed Babylonian sieges, deportations, and ultimately the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. The consistent theme of Jeremiah message was repentance: over 100 times he calls God’s people to turn or repent from their sins. Throughout almost forty years of ministry, his message was not well-received and he was persecuted numerous times.
Numerous archaeological finds demonstrate that various historical elements contained within the book are accurately described, implying the author was an eyewitness to the events. Here are the top ten discoveries that affirm and illuminate the book of Jeremiah.
NOTE: Before beginning, I should mention that I have only considered artifacts that are generally accepted as authentic in the academic world. Thus, I have not included the Baruch Bulla (a seal impressions purported to be from Baruch, son of Neriah – Jer. 36:4).1 One day I hope to explore this artifact in a future “Weighing the Evidence” blog; for now, I’m unsure of its authenticity and so I have chosen to leave it off of this list.
10. Idols
And I will declare my judgments against them, for all their evil in forsaking me. They have made offerings to other gods and worshiped the works of their own hands.(Jer. 1:16 ESV)
The book of Jeremiah is filled with condemnation of false gods. The prophet consistently denounced God’s people for worshiping the idols of the nations around them (Jer. 2:11, 28; 5:7, 19; 7:6; 11:10; etc.). Specific false gods are named throughout the prophet’s book: Jeremiah records that God’s people were worshiping Baal (7:9) and offering cakes to the Queen of Heaven (7:18).
Archaeology has illuminated the idol worship of this period through the discovery of numerous images and idols of the very gods condemned by Jeremiah. The worship of Baal began much earlier, the Bronze Age, but continued into Jeremiah’s day. Baal simply means “Lord” but refers to the Canaanite deity Baal-Hadad. The discovery of Ugarit texts describe Baal as the great storm god, and that the fertility of the land depends on the rain he brings.2 In time, local manifestations of Baal arose, with place names reflecting his prominence as the patron deity of each site – Baal-Shamem, Baal of Lebanon and Baal of Sidon in Phoenician texts, 3Baal-Peor (Hos 9:10), Baal-Hermon (1 Chr 5:23), and Baal-Hazor (2 Sam 13:23) in the Old Testament. The famous Baal Stele was discovered in 1932 in the Temple of Baal at Ugarit. It depicts Baal in a conical helmet with a club in one hand and a thunderbolt in the others. Smaller Baal statues discovered throughout the southern Levant depict him in a similar way. The Queen of Heaven on the other hand was a goddess worshiped primarily by the women of Judah who baked cakes with her image on them. Susan Ackerman believes the Queen of Heaven was a combination of the East Semitic goddess Ishtar and the West Semitic Astarte.4
9. The Destruction at Shiloh
Go now to my place that was in Shiloh, where I made my name dwell at first, and see what I did to it because of the evil of my people Israel. (Jer. 7:12 ESV)
Jeremiah’s message of repentance included a warning from God to look to Shiloh as an example. Shiloh was where the tabernacle stood for over 300 years. Three times per year, the Israelites gathered at Shiloh for the great feasts. It was, in essence, the first capital city of ancient Israel. Yet, because of the disobedience of God’s people, He allowed it to be destroyed.
While not stated explicitly in the biblical text, it appears Shiloh was destroyed by the Philistines. The Battle of Aphek (sometimes called the Battle of Eben-ezer) is described in 1 Samuel 4: the Israelites were defeated and the Ark of the Covenant captured by the Philistines. The Psalmist seems to refer to this event when he writes that God “forsook his dwelling at Shiloh, the tent where he dwelt among mankind, and delivered his power to captivity, his glory to the hand of the foe” (Ps 78:60-61 ESV), implying that it was the Philistines who destroyed Shiloh. Further, when the Ark of the Covenant was returned to the Israelites, they did not take it back to Shiloh, but rather to Kiriath-Jearim (1 Sam. 7:1). This makes sense if Shiloh had been destroyed as part of the conflict. Archaeological excavations have revealed that Shiloh was destroyed by a great fire right around the time of the battle. The Danish team determined Shiloh was destroyed in the middle of the 11th century BC5 and the Israeli team agreed, attributing the destruction to the Iron Age I period.6 The current excavations at Shiloh, led by the Associates for Biblical Research have also found a destruction layer that has been carbon-dated to 1060 BCE +/- 30 years.7
8. Evidence of Nebuchadnezzar’s Invasion of Egypt
‘Thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel: Behold, I will send and take Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon…He shall come and strike the land of Egypt (Jer. 43:10-11 ESV)
Jeremiah prophesied that Nebuchadnezzar would strike the land of Egypt, burning their temples of their gods and breaking the obelisks of Heliopolis (43:13). However, evidence for this campaign has been lacking, causing some to question the authenticity or accuracy of Jeremiah’s prophecy.
The primary source for information about Nebuchadnezzar’s campaigns are the Babylonian Chronicles, which only provide data for the first 11 years of his 43-year reign. They record two primary battles against Egypt, the Battle of Carchemish in 604 BC, in which Nebuchadnezzar defeated Pharaoh Neco (Jer. 46:2), and an invasion of Egypt in 601 BC that appears to have been unsuccessful: “In open battle they smote the breast of each other and inflicted great havoc on each other. The king of Akkad turned back with his troops and returned to Babylon.”8 After this, from 594 BC until 562 BC, very little is known about Nebuchadnezzar’s military activities9 Josephus mentions a campaign into Egypt in Nebuchadnezzar’s 23rd year, but does not name his source.10
There are also two inscriptions suggesting that Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egypt later in his reign and wreaked havoc in throughout land. A cuneiform tablet in the British Museum describes a campaign against Egypt in Nebuchadnezzar’s 37th year; it has been reconstructed to read, “The 37th year, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon marched against Egypt to deliver battle. Amasis…of Egypt, called up his army.”11 The Elephantine Stela of Pharaoh Amasis also describes an invasion of Egypt at the same time (ie. 567 BC); it is generally agreed that this refers to Nebuchadnezzar’s campaign. The enemy of Egypt is described as “attacking the land, they cover every path… their hearts plot to overthrow our country;” the stele goes on to describe the enemy causing “harm in the cities and districts.”12
The fact that the Babylonians invaded Egypt on multiple occasions suggests that Jeremiah’s prophecy came true at some point. Nebuchadnezzar’s campaign in his 37th year, fragmentary though the sources be, may be the invasion Jeremiah prophesied.
IMAGE: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/image/197630001
7. The Lachish Letters
When the army of the king of Babylon was fighting against Jerusalem and against all the cities of Judah that were left, Lachish and Azekah, for these were the only fortified cities of Judah that remained. (Jer. 34:7 ESV)
The Lachish Letters are a collection of ostraca discovered by James L. Starkey in the 1930’s while excavating the guardroom of the gate complex at Lachish. An ostracon is a pottery sherd that has been written on with ink. The Lachish Letters were found in a sixth-century destruction layer attributed to the Babylonians. These texts contain important evidence regarding the widespread literacy in Judah at this time and they provide background information to events leading up to the Babylonian invasion. Lachish Letter III contains a reference to an unnamed prophet who issued a warning, “Beware!” Some have identified this prophet as Jeremiah;13 while this is possible, it is stretching the evidence. The most that can be said is that there were prophets in Judah, like Jeremiah, who were issuing similar warnings at that time. Lachish Letter IV was written by Hoshaiah, likely a military commander at a nearby Judahite fort, to Yaosh, who was probably the commander at Lachish. He writes, “Investigate and (my Lord) will know that we are watching for the signals of Lachish according to all the indications which my Lord hath given, for we cannot see Azekah.”14 It seems that Hoshaiah is recording, in real-time, the Babylonian invasion of 587/86 BC15 referenced in Jer. 34:7, and that he is watching for the signal fires of Lachish because the signal fires of Azekah have gone out.
6. The Al-Yahudu Tablets
“Thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, to all the exiles whom I have sent into exile from Jerusalem to Babylon: Build houses and live in them; plant gardens and eat their produce. Take wives and have sons and daughters; take wives for your sons, and give your daughters in marriage, that they may bear sons and daughters; multiply there, and do not decrease.” (Jer. 29:4-6 ESV).
King Nebuchadnezzar took the people of Judah into exile in three waves (605 BC, 597 BC, and 587/86 BC), resettling them in Babylon. Beginning in 1999, a group of texts came to light, which are known as the Al-Yahudu tablets; they are cuneiform documents from the city of Al-Yahudu, which means “City of Judah” in Akkadian. These tablets contain a record of the daily lives of the Jewish exiles in Babylon and are mostly legal documents, including business transactions, tax payments, and marriage contracts. It is evident from the archive that the exiles were not slaves, but rather state-dependents who retained their distinctly Jewish identity.16 Many of the names of the people in these documents contain the theophoric element linking them to YHWH, often ending in ya, yahu, or yama (the Babylonian version of Yahu).17 It appears that many of the Jewish exiles were involved in agriculture. One tablet reads, “Qil-Yawason ofShikin-Yawaowes 1,260 litres of dates to Iddina, son of Shinqa. He will hand over the dates in Judahtown in the seventh month.”18 It appears that the exiles obeyed God’s command to settle there, build houses, plant gardens, and allow their sons and daughters to marry.
5. Jehoiachin Ration Tablet
After Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon had taken into exile from Jerusalem Jeconiah the son of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, together with the officials of Judah, the craftsmen, and the metal workers, and had brought them to Babylon, the LORD showed me this vision… (Jer. 24:1 ESV)
Jeconiah, the king of Judah who Nebuchadnezzar took to Babylon is known by three different names in the Bible: Jeconiah (meaning, “Yahweh will be steadfast” – 1 Chron. 3:16), Jehoiachin (meaning “Yahweh will uphold” – 2 Kings 24:8), and Coniah (“Yahweh has upheld him” – Jer. 37:1).19 Jeremiah first prophesied that Jeconiah/Coniah/Jehoiachin would be taken into exile (Jer. 22:24ff) and then recorded that this had actually occurred (Jer. 24:1, 27:20).
Robert Koldeway provided archaeological evidence for Jeconiah/Coniah/Jehoiachin’s exile when he discovered a cache of cuneiform tablets in a room near the Ishtar gate at Babylon. These texts documented the rations for allotted to prisoners and skilled laborers of Babylon.20Several of the tablets name “Iaukin,” the “king of Iakadu,” identified as Jehoiachin, king of Judah, and list the rations given to the royal family. One reads, “10 sila of oil to…Jehoiachin, king of Judah…2 ½ sila of oil to the five sons of the king of Judah.” 21The “Jehoiachin Ration Tablets,” as they have come to be known, are tangible evidence that Jeconiah/Coniah/Jehoiachin was held in captivity in Babylon and that he was still recognized as the king of Judah.22
The book of Jeremiah further records that after Nebuchadnezzar’s death, his son son Evil-Merodach/Awil-Marduk became king and freed Jehoiachin, giving him a daily allowance and letting him eat at the king’s table until the day he died (Jer. 52:31-34). Thus the word of the Lord spoken by Jeremiah the prophet came true: “I will hurl you and the mother who bore you into another country, where you were not born, and there you shall die”(Jer. 22:26).
4. Cuneiform Tablets Naming Babylonian Officials
Then all the officials of the king of Babylon came and sat in the middle gate: Nergal-sar-ezer of Samgar, Nebu-sar-sekim the Rab-saris, Nergal-sar-ezer the Rab-mag, with all the rest of the officers of the king of Babylon. (Jer, 39:3 ESV)
Important officials of King Nebuchadnezzar named in the Book of Jeremiah have been affirmed in cuneiform documents from Babylon. One reads, “(Regarding) 1.5 minas (0.75 kg) of gold, the property of Nabu-sharrussu-ukin, the chief eunuch, which he sent via Arad-Banitu the eunuch to [the temple] Esangila: Arad-Banitu has delivered [it] to Esangila. In the presence of Bel-usat, son of Aplaya, the royal bodyguard, [and of] Nadin, son of Marduk-zer-ibni. Month XI, day 18, year 10 [of] Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon.”23 Nabu-sharrussu-ukin is the Akkadian form of Nebu-sar-sekim, and his title, the Rab-saris is identical to that in the biblical text (rab ša-rēši, chief eunuch in Akkadian). The tablet dates to within nine years of the events of Jeremiah 39. All of this leads Bible scholar Lawrence Mykytiuk to conclude, “ The extreme unlikelihood that two individuals having the same personal name would have been the sole holders of this office, and within a decade of each other, makes it safe to assume that the inscription and the book of Jeremiah refer to the same person in different years of his time in office.”24 Two other Babylonian officials, Nergal-sar-ezer (Jer. 39:3) and Nebuzaradan (Jer. 39:9) are named on the Nebuchadnezzar Prism (ie. prism EŞ 7834, in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum).25
3. Seals and Seal Impressions of Royal Officials
Now Shephatiah the son of Mattan, Gedaliah the son of Pashhur, Jucal the son of Shelemiah, and Pashhur the son of Malchiah heard the words that Jeremiah was saying to all the people (Jer 38:1ESV)
Jeremiah was denounced by officials of the king of Judah because of the effect his prophecies were having on the morale of the Jewish soldiers. Among these were Gedaliah, the son of Pashhur and Jucal, the son of Shemeliah. Bullae (clay seal impressions) from both of these officials were discovered in excavations near the Stepped Stone Structure in Jerusalem by Eliat Mazar.26 One bulla reads, “Belonging to Jehucal, son of Shelemiah, son of Shovi” while the other is inscribed with the words, “Belonging to Gedaliah, son of Pashur.” Another bulla bearing the inscription “Belonging to Gemariah, son of Shaphan” had earlier been discovered in the “House of Bullae” in the City of David excavations in the 1980’s by Yigal Shiloh.27 Gemariah was an official during King Jehoiakim’s reign in whose chamber Baruch read the words of Jeremiah from a scroll (Jer. 36:10).
Later, in the aftermath of the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem, Gedaliah, son of Ahikam, was appointed governor of the Judahite cities by King Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 40:5). He was subsequently murdered by an assassin sent from Baalis, the king of the Ammonites (Jer. 40:14) In 1936, excavations at Lachish unearthed a bulla inscribed with the phrase, “Belonging to Gedalyah, who is over the House.” Gedalyah is an alternate form of Gedaliah, and has been identified with the son of Ahikam whom Nebuchadnezzar made governor of the land. While the title, “who is over the house” is not specified by Jeremiah, scholars have suggested that he may have had this title before the Babylonian invasion.28 In 1999, Biblical Archaeology Review ran a cover story announcing the discovery of a brown agate seal bearing the reconstructed inscription, “Belonging to Ba’alis, King of Bnei Ammon” (literally, King of the Sons of Ammon, or the Ammonites).29
2. Evidence of Babylonian Destruction of Jerusalem
The Chaldeans burned the king’s house and the house of the people, and broke down the walls of Jerusalem. (Jer 39:8)
In 587/86, Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city of Jerusalem, burning the Temple, the palace, and the houses of the people (2 Kgs 25:9). Various excavations in Jerusalem have revealed that the city was destroyed by fire in the sixth century BC. Kathleen Kenyon’s excavations on the Ophel in the 1960’s unearthed several Israelite houses that had been destroyed by fire. Three houses excavated in the City of David (the so-called Burnt Room, the House of Ahiel, and the House of Bullae) all contained the burnt remains of wooden beams that dated to the time of the Babylonian conquest.30 Ash and charred wooden beams dating to the sixth century were also discovered in a monumental building in the Givati Parking Lot excavations.31 In 2019, the University of North Carolina’s excavations on Mount Zion in Jerusalem discovered further evidence of the Babylonian destruction. A burn layer of ash contained arrowheads from this period, as well as Iron Age pottery, lamps, and a piece of gold jewelry.32 Other evidence of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem was uncovered in 1975 by Nachman Avigad in the Jewish Quarter. His team unearthed four arrowheads buried in ash at the base of a defensive tower. The arrowheads likely came from arrows that had fallen short of their mark, hitting the outside wall of the stone tower and falling to the base.33
1. Babylonian Chronicles
Zedekiah the son of Josiah, whom Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon made king in the land of Judah, reigned instead of Coniah the son of Jehoiakim.(Jer 37:1ESV)
The Bible records that king Nebuchadnezzar deposed Jeconiah as king of Judah, taking him into exile in Babylon, and that he “carried all of the treasures of the house of the LORD and the treasures of the king’s house” (2 Kgs 24:17). Then “the king of Babylon made Mattaniah, Jehoiachin’s uncle, king in his place, and changed his name to Zedekiah” (2 Kgs 24:17). Jeremiah witnessed these events in Jerusalem first-hand and recorded them in his book of prophecies.
These events were also recorded by Babylonian scribes. The Babylonian Chronicles are a collection of cuneiform tablets that describe the significant events in Babylonian history each year. The chronicle for the years 605-595 BC (known as ABC 5, or more popularly as the “Jerusalem Chronicle”) is famous for its detailed description of Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem in 597 BC, the deposition ofKing Jehoiachin, the appointment of King Zedekiah and the heavy tribute the Babylonian king took, affirming many biblical details. It reads:
“In the seventh yearthe month of Kislîmu, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to the Hatti-land, and besieged the city of Judah and on the second day of the month of Addaru. He seized the city and captured the king. [Jehoiachin: 2 Kings24.8-17.] He appointed there a king of his own choice, [“Jehoiachin’s uncle Mattaniah whose name was changed to Zedekiah”:2 Kings24.17.]received its heavy tribute and sent to Babylon.”34
The Jerusalem Chronicle affirms details of the change in Judah’s king as recorded by Jeremiah the prophet and the writers of the book of 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles.
Conclusion
Simply put, there are many, many archaeological discoveries that both affirm and illuminate historical details in the book of Jeremiah. There were actually too many to include in my list, so finds related to the great pool at Gibeon (Jer. 41:12) and those that illuminate the life of Pharaoh Hophra (Jer. 44:30) had to be left out.
The prophet Jeremiah did not live an easy life. He prophesied for 40 years with few positive results and he lived to see God’s judgement on his people through the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar. The archaeological record is full of evidence that Jeremiah accurately described the reality of the days in which he lived. If we can trust the book of Jeremiah historically, then I believe we can trust it spiritually. Jeremiah described a New Covenant that God would make with people (Jer. 31:31-34). The writer of the book of Hebrews looked back to this passage and saw its fulfillment in Christ. Jesus came to initiate a New Covenant through His blood shed on a cross in order that people might be forgiven and have a restored relationship with God.
Cover: The Lamentations of Jeremiah, by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld. Image: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Endnotes
1 For a good summary of the arguments in favor and against the authenticity of the Baruch Bullae, I recommend Christopher Eames’ article, “Baruch, Jeremiah’s Scribe: Proved?” available here: https://armstronginstitute.org/228-baruch-jeremiahs-scribe-proved
2 John Day, “Baal” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary,ed. D.N. Freedman. (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 850.
3 Day, 852.
4 Susan Ackerman, Gods, Goddesses, and the Women Who Serve Them. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2022), 16.
5 Hans Kjaer, “The Excavation of Shiloh 1929” Journal of Palestine Oriental Society, Vol. X, 1930., p. 105.
6 Isreal Finkelstien, Shiloh: A Biblical City. (Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology, 1993), p. 388.
7 Kevin Larson, Personal Communication, May 25, 2024.
8 “ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle),” Livius.org. https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-5-jerusalem-chronicle/ (Accessed Sept. 25, 2024)
9 Jamie Novotnyand Frauke Weiershäuser, The Royal Inscriptions of Nabopolassar (625-605 BC) and Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 BC), Kings of Babylon, Part 1. (University Park: Eisenbrauns, 2024), 12.
10 Josephus, Antiquities 10.9.7.
11 James B. Pritchard,Ancient Near Easter Texts Relating to the Old Testament,(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969), 308.
12 Jansen-Winkeln, Karl. “Die Siegesstele des Amasis”Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, vol. 141, no. 2, 2014, pp. 136-137. https://doi.org/10.1515/zaes-2014-0011
13 Raymond S. Haupert, “The Lachish Letters.”The Biblical Archaeologist1, no. 4 (1938), pg. 32. https://doi.org/10.2307/3209237
14 W. F. Albright, “The Oldest Hebrew Letters: The Lachish Ostraca.”Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 70 (1938), pg. 14. https://doi.org/10.2307/1354816.
15 For a discussion of whether Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in 586 or 587 BC, see Roger Young’s article, “When Did Jerusalem Fall?”JETS47/1 (March 2004) 21–38. Online:http://www.rcyoung.org/articles/jerusalem.html(Accessed Aug. 15, 2022).
16 “Tablets of Jewish Exiles,” Bible History Daily. Feb. 12, 2016. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/exhibits-events/tablets-of-jewish-exiles/ (Accessed Sept. 26, 2024).
17 Ibid.
18 George Heath-Whyte, “The Al-Yahudu Tablets,” https://tyndalehouse.com/explore/articles/the-al-yahudu-tablets/ (Accessed Sept. 26, 2024).
19 “Jehoiachin,”International Standard Bible Encyclopedia.https://www.biblestudytools.com/encyclopedias/isbe/jehoiachin.html(Accessed Nov. 9, 2020).
20 Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish,Lost Treasures of the Bible.(Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 217.
21 Jona Lendering, “Jehoiachin in Babylonia.”Livius.org.https://www.livius.org/articles/person/jehoiachin-in-babylonia/(Accessed Nov. 10, 2020).
22 Ferrell Jenkins, “Evil-merodach (562-560) graciously freedJehoiachin.”
https://ferrelljenkins.blog/2012/02/08/evil-merodach-562-560-graciously-freed-jehoiachin/(Accessed Nov. 11, 2020).
23 “Tablet BM 114789,” The British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1920-1213-81(Accessed Sept. 26, 2024).
24 Lawrence J. Mykytiuk, and לורנס ג’ מיקיטיוק. “Eleven Non-Royal Jeremianic Figures Strongly Identified in Authentic, Contemporaneous Inscriptions. זיהוי ודאי של אחת־עשרה דמויות בספר ירמיה הרשומות בכתובות אותנטיות בנות התקופה.”Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies / ארץ-ישראל: מחקרים בידיעת הארץ ועתיקותיה, vol. לב, 2016, p. 60.https://www.jstor.org/stable/26732497 (Accessed Sept. 26, 2024).
25 Lawrence J. Mykytiuk, “53 People in the Bible Confirmed Archaeologically.” Bible History Daily. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/50-people-in-the-bible-confirmed-archaeologically/(Accessed Sept. 26, 2024).
26 Christopher Eames, “Stamped Into History: The Seals of the Prophet Jeremiah.” https://armstronginstitute.org/273-stamped-into-history-the-seals-of-the-prophet-jeremiah (Accessed Sept. 26, 2024).
27 Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass.Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals.(Jerusalem:
The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Israel Exploration Society, and
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Institute of Archaeology, 1997), p. 191 (No. 470).
28 Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass.Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals.(Jerusalem:
The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Israel Exploration Society, and
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, The Institute of Archaeology, 1997), p. 172 (No. 405).
29 Robert Deutsch, “Seal of Ba’alis Surfaces.” https://web.archive.org/web/20061022182148/http://www.robert-deutsch.com/en/monographs/m7/ (Accessed Sept. 26, 2024)
30 This information comes from my course on the Archaeology and History of the Jerusalem Area through Trinity Southwest University
31 N. Shalom, Y. Vaknin, R. Shaar, E. Ben-Yosef, O. Lipschits, Y. Shalev, Y. Gadot, E. Boaretto, “Destruction By Fire: Reconstructing the Evidence of the 586 BCE Babylonian Destruction in a Monumental Building in Jerusalem,” Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 157, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2023.105823.
32 “Evidence of the 587/586 BCE Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem found in Mount Zion excavation” (2019) https://inside.charlotte.edu/news-features/2019-08-12/evidence-587586-bce-babylonian-conquest-jerusalem-found-mount-zion/ (Accessed Sept. 11, 2024)
33 Suzanne F. Singer, “Found in Jerusalem: Remains of the Babylonian Siege.” Biblical Archaeology Review, March 1976.
34 “ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle),”Livius.org.July 26, 2017.https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-5-jerusalem-chronicle/(Accessed Oct. 13, 2019).
